Adolescence and emerging adulthood

Education at the tertiary level is becoming an obvious life decision for young people, who perceive higher levels of education as an opportunity for better career opportunities and a more financially comfortable life. In this study, we examined the characteristics of study motivation from the perspective of self-determination theory, career goals, and career optimism of young people. For Slovenian students, we identify both internal and external motivations for studying. Among the internal reasons, the desire for knowledge was strongly expressed, while the external reasons mostly involve better preparation for their future career path wherein their studies are perceived as a means of obtaining a well-paid and respectable job. Slovenian students attach greater importance to internal career goals, but they also highly express career goals, such as achieving financial success and recognition of career success by others. Career optimism of young people in this period of life is quite high.

Literature:

Puklek Levpušček, M. (2018). Mladi, študij in karierna pričakovanja. V M. Zupančič (ur.) in M. Puklek Levpušček (ur.), Prehod v odraslost: sodobni trendi in raziskave (str. 157-192). Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. https://e-knjige.ff.uni-lj.si/znanstvena-zalozba/catalog/view/305/445/6689-1

Puklek Levpušček, M., Rauch, V. in Komidar, L. (2018). Individuation in relation to parents as a predictor of career goals and career optimism in emerging adults. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 59(2), 146-156. doi: 10.1111/sjop.12421

We determined the construct validity and reliability of the Academic Motivation Scale, version for students (AMS-C 28, Vallerand et al., 1992) and its connection with gender, belief in the correct choice of study and professional goals. The AMS-C 28 measures a multidimensional motivational construct and contains seven scales. 324 students from various fields of study at the University of Ljubljana participated in the validation sample. The seven-factor structure showed acceptable fit in the Slovenian data, and the measurement invariance of the instrument with respect to gender was also established. Current belief in the correct choice of study was positively related to all three factors of intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, and negatively related to amotivation. Extrinsic career goals correlated low to moderately high with factors of extrinsic motivation, while intrinsic career goals correlated with three factors of intrinsic motivation, identified and introjected regulation, and negatively with amotivation. Female students had higher achievements than male students on the scales of desire for accomplishments, identified and introjected regulation. The AMS-C 28 scale has adequate construct and convergent validity and reliability in the Slovenian environment.

Literature:

Puklek Levpušček, M. in Podlesek, A. (2017). Veljavnost in zanesljivost Lestvice akademske motivacije na vzorcu slovenskih študentov. Psihološka obzorja, 26, 10-20. http://psiholoska-obzorja.si/arhiv_clanki/2017/puklek-levpuscek_podlesek.pdf

In this study, we were interested in changes in study motivation over the course of the study year and its connection with the satisfaction of psychological needs for connection, independent decision-making and experiencing competence in the study context, as well as satisfaction with studies. With the help of the AMS-C 28 questionnaire, study motivation was determined on the motivational continuum, as defined in the theory of self-determination. This extends from the absence of motivation through various forms of external motivation to markedly internal motivation. We found that various forms of motivation among students are quite stable throughout the academic year. Students who have a more pronounced autonomous orientation in their studies also report more satisfied psychological needs in the study context, they are also more satisfied with their studies and more confident in the correct choice of study. Satisfied psychological needs are a factor that further explains students’ satisfaction with studies, with the already confirmed importance of the effect of autonomous orientation in studies.

Literatura

Puklek Levpušček, M. in Podlesek, A. (2019). Links between academic motivation, psychological need satisfaction in education, and university students’ satisfaction with their study. Psihologijske teme, 28(3),567-587. https://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=334420

We coordinated the implementation of the international survey of the socio-economic conditions of life of students in Europe – Eurostudent VI and VII, which takes place cyclically every three years, in Slovenia and collected data on representative samples of the student population enrolled in 2016 and 2019 in any study program I. and II. Bologna degrees or a post-secondary program (excluding on-line study programs) offered at universities and independent post-secondary and higher education institutions. The aim of the research is to obtain internationally comparative data for the social dimension of higher education and it enables the participating countries to gain insight into the social and economic background as well as the characteristics of the student population and the organization of higher education. The research collects data on the socio-educational background and other demographic characteristics of the student population, ways of entering higher education, types and forms of study, students’ financial resources and costs, housing conditions, study mobility and internationalization, as well as subjective assessments of the quality of studies and future plans of students for study and work. The research presents findings on what problems and obstacles students encounter in their studies and living and enables the planning of national strategies and policies aimed at improving the quality of higher education studies and the living and economic conditions of students.

Literature:

Gril, A., Bijuklič, I., Autor, S., Prem, I. (2022). Evroštudent VII : socialni in ekonomski pogoji življenja študentov v Evropi: 2018-2021, nacionalno poročilo – Slovenija. E-izd. Ljubljana: Pedagoški inštitut. ISBN 978-961-270-379-0. https://www.pei.si/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/evrostudentVII.pdf . [COBISS.SI-ID 93467395].

Gril, A., Bijuklič, I., Autor, S. (2018). Evroštudent VI : socialni in ekonomski pogoji življenja študentov v Evropi: 2016-2018, nacionalno poročilo – Slovenija. Ljubljana: Pedagoški inštitut, cop. 2018. ISBN 978-961-270-290-8. https://www.pei.si/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/EvrostudentVI_porocilo.pdf [COBISS.SI-ID 297532928]

The dynamics in the romantic relationships of young people at the transition to adulthood are changing due to changes in the life courses of young people, who, compared to previous generations of young people, are extending the period of education into the early 20s to a greater extent and thus economic dependence, postponing long-term binding partner relationships, attribute great importance to personal development in the field of work and career and spending free time. In recent years, the way of establishing contacts with potential partners has also changed, as more and more young people have experience using online dating applications, which are used both for finding short-term intimate contacts and long-term partnerships. In the research, we examine young people’s attitudes towards romantic relationships and sexuality, as well as the connection of said attitudes with partner status and the use of online dating applications. We pay special attention to young people in their twenties who are not currently in a partner relationship or have not yet had a partner. We are interested in their motivation for establishing a partner relationship and the connection of said motivation with certain personality traits, excessive use of the Internet and relationships with parents.

Literature:

Puklek-Levpušček, M., & Glavač, T. (2023). Beliefs about Romantic Relationships and Sexual Attitudes Predicting Romantic Relationship Experiences, Intentions, and Dating App Use. The Open Psychology Journal, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.2174/0118743501268052231128111338

Glavač, T.,& Puklek Levpušček, M. (2024). Romantic experiences in emerging adults: How they relate to the importance of romantic relationships and the quality of relationships with parents. Društvena istraživanja, 33 (2), 223-245. https://doi.org/10.5559/di.33.2.03

We examined the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of social networks with the help of 51 adolescents who lived in residential communities, and compared them with the characteristics of the social networks of adolescents who lived in their families. The results showed significant differences. Compared to their peers, adolescents in non-familial institutional education have significantly smaller social networks, especially less close interpersonal relationships, and they also included professional workers in their social networks more often. Weaknesses in the social networks of young people in residential communities were particularly evident in the area of ​​relations with the family: compared to their peers who lived in a family environment, members of the immediate and extended family were less often included in their social network, and had less frequent contact with them. received less support from them and were less satisfied with these relationships. In general, less favorable quantitative and qualitative characteristics of social relationships were associated with more intense self-reported loneliness of adolescents, especially these connections were noticeable in the area of ​​relationships with family. The study shed light on the less favorable social networks of adolescents in out-of-family institutional education, and quality social relationships, especially with family members, play a protective role in the loneliness of adolescents. These findings indicate the need for interventions aimed at improving the availability and supporting role of members of the immediate, as well as the wider families of these young people, and professionals who work with them can also play an important role.

Literature:

Kristan, N., Marovič, M. in Kavčič, T. (2022). Who has my back? : social convoys and loneliness in Slovenian adolescents living in residential youth care grouphomes. Child & Family Social Work, 27, 254-266. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12879 

In the scientific monograph “Imaginary objects of attachment” I discuss attachment to objects with which we do not have direct physical contact, they may only be distant, or they may even be invisible or invented, but they still satisfy the criteria of attachment objects. These objects are unborn children, imaginary friends, celebrities, potential partners that individuals meet online, geographically distant partners, ex-partners, God and mystical beings, nostalgic memories, and deceased persons. I deal with them in separate chapters, which follow each other according to the stages of development. In the chapter on unborn children, I discuss prenatal attachment, followed by a chapter on attachment to imaginary friends, which are most often created by children, most research on attachment to celebrities has been done with adolescents and young people on the transition to adulthood, online dating applications are used by individuals of all ages, with an attachment to a former partner or a current partner who lives in another place, it is mainly encountered by adults, beliefs, and mysticism are present in people of different ages, nostalgia, and mourning occur more often in late adulthood. In most chapters, I present the results of my research, among which the leading one is about the attitude of young people to celebrities in connection with their attachment style, meaning in life, religiosity, and spirituality.

Literatura:

Cugmas, Z. (2022). Namišljeni objekti navezanosti. i2.

We investigated the occurrence of selected types of problematic use of social networks and mobile phones among young people on the transition to adulthood. We were interested in the excessive use of social networks and mobile phones, and phenomena such as phubbing (using a mobile phone in the presence of others), creeping (browsing others), and catfishing (creating a false identity) among young people aged between 18 and 29. We were also interested in concurrent associations with age, gender, and personality traits. The results show that problematic behaviors related to the use of social networks and mobile phones, with the exception of catfishing, are relatively common among young people. The aforementioned problematic behaviors were more common among younger participants, while excessive use of social networks and mobile phones and “creeping” are more characteristic of women than men. After controlling for age, gender, and time spent on social media, high neuroticism, and low conscientiousness emerged as significant predictors of problematic social media and mobile phone use. Young people with a lower level of acceptance reported problematic behaviors such as “creeping” and “catfishing” to a greater extent. More extroverted and less open young people reported more excessive use of mobile phones and more use of mobile phones in the presence of others (phubbing).

Literature:

Kavčič, T., Puklek Levpušček, M., Zupančič, M. Poredoš, M. in Bjornsen, C. (2019). Personal correlates of problematic types of social media and mobile phone use in emerging adults. Human Technology, 15(2), 256-278. https://ht.csr-pub.eu/index.php/ht/article/view/224/202

With more than 11,000 young people on the transition to adulthood and young adults (average age 27 years, half in each of the 46 countries were students, young people from Slovenia also participated) from five continents, we studied the motives for using Facebook (FB). We identified some small but distinctive associations between users from different continents and between genders, as well as associations with age. Females reported more motives for using FB than males, namely to keep in touch with friends, to reconnect with old friends, to be bored, to organize and participate in various events, to check on friends’ activities, to inform others about their own activities, and to share photos. Compared to women, however, men cited making new friends, arranging dates, and checking the profiles of people they did not know more often as motives. Younger users (with the exception of sharing photos) attributed more importance to all other motives than older users. As they got older, the frequency of using FB and stating most of the discussed motives for its use (eg maintaining friendships, boredom, organizing and participating in events, writing private messages, making new friends, dating) also decreased. With increasing age, users more often reported using FB only for posting or sharing photos. Compared to users from other continents, Europeans did not stand out in any motive for using FB. Apart from North America, young people on all continents used FB most often to keep in touch with friends.

Literatura:

Kowal, M., Sorokowski, P., Sorokowska, A., Dobrowolska, M., Pisanski, K., Olesekiewicz, A., Aavik, T., Akello, G., Alm, C., Amjad, N., Zupančič, M., Kavčič, T. idr. (2020). Reasons for Facebook usage: Data from 46 countries. Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 11, art. 711, 1-7. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00711/full, DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00711.

Based on the shortcomings of measuring instruments for assessing separation-individuation in relation to parents, which are designed for adolescents, based on the theory of the transition to adulthood and newer models of separation-individuation, we developed the Individuation test for emerging adults (ITEA)) in equivalent forms for the self-assessment of young people in the relationship to the mother and in relation to the father. In the first study with young people on the transition to adulthood, between the ages of 19 and 28 (N = 633; ​​58.5% women), we created a preliminary instrument with 38 items and four internally reliable factors of independence from a set of 58 items through appropriate statistical analyses. In another study of young people (N = 500), a 36-item five-factor structure in the same forms in relation to mother and father was found to be more optimal: perceived connection with mother/father, seeking support from mother/father in difficult life situations, perceived mother’s intrusiveness /father (unwanted invasion of privacy, psychological control of parents), self-reliance and fear of disappointing mother/father. The factors were satisfactorily internally reliable, and in addition to construct validity, we also supported the concurrent validity of five different aspects of independence with emotional, functional and conflictual (in)dependence in relation to mother and father. Through the analysis of several groups, we also showed the stability of the factor structure between men and women in relation to their mother and father.

With the aim of creating a psychometrically more robust tool that would be useful in longitudinal and cross-cultural research (and practice), we also shortened it simultaneously with the translation/adaptation of the TOPO into English (ITEA). With two samples of young people in Slovenia (N = 563 and N = 500) and in the USA (N = 319 and N = 372), we developed a short version (TOPO-K or ITEA-S) with 21 items, the same in a form for mom and dad. With the short form, we recognized the same factor structure (5 factors) as with the long form, adequate internal reliability of the five scales (in relation to each parent separately), in addition to construct validity, concurrent validity with the three discussed aspects of (in)dependence on parents and aspects of self differentiation and the connection with the demographic characteristics of young people (in Slovenia and the USA). With confirmatory factor analysis of several groups, we supported the hypothesis of metric and partial scalar invariance of both TOPO-K forms (in relation to mother and father) in both countries.

Literature: 

Komidar, L., Zupančič, M., Sočan, G., & Puklek Levpušček, M. (2014). Development and construct validation of the Individuation Test for Emerging Adults (ITEA). Journal of Personality Assessment, 96(5), 503–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2013.850703

 Komidar, L., Zupančič, M., Puklek Levpušček, M., & Bjornsen, C. (2016). Development of the Short Version of the Individuation Test for Emerging Adults (ITEA–S) and its measurement invariance across Slovene and US emerging adults. Journal of Personality Assessment, 98(6), 626–639. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2016.1171231

Zupančič, M. in Komidar, L. (2018). Psihološko osamosvajanje in njegovo merjenje na prehodu v odraslost. V: M. Zupančič in M. Puklek Levpušček (ur.), Prehod v odraslost: sodobni trendi in raziskave (str. 81-118). Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani.

In an international survey in which we collected data on the financial functioning of freshmen in several countries and was coordinated by M. Friedlmeier from Grand Valley University, we mainly based on the hierarchical model of financial socialization S. Shim et al. (2010) conceptualized a model of parental financial socialization and satisfaction with personal finance management. We checked it with Austrian (N = 395) and Slovenian (N = 412) freshmen. The context of prior parental financial socialization (socio-economic status of parents, parental financial teaching and their positive financial behavior before their “children” started studying) first predicted the cognitive outcomes of freshmen’s financial learning (financial knowledge and adopting a financial role model from their parents), then their financial behavior control, at the next level of their behavioral outcomes (positive financial behavior and positive relationship with parents regarding financial matters). Behavioral outcomes further contributed to freshmen’s satisfaction with their personal money management. Knowing the path to satisfaction in managing finances is important, as the results of several studies show that the subjective assessment of the financial circumstances of life and the financial functioning of individuals has a positive effect on their satisfaction with life in general. The results of our research emphasize the important role of parents in early (childhood, adolescence) financial socialization and explain the path to positive financial functioning in young people in the transition to adulthood through several levels.

Literature:

Sirsch, U., Zupančič, M., Poredoš, M., Levec, K. in Friedmeier, M. (2020). Does parental financial socialization for emerging adults matter? The case of Austrian and Slovene first-year university students. Emerging Adulthood, 8(6), 509-520. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2167696819882178, DOI: 10.1177/2167696819882178.

In the context of the same research, we qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed the motives of Slovenian freshmen (N = 515) and one of their parents for saving money and studied the factors of saving among freshmen. We found that 67% of freshmen and 65% of parents saved money with a specific purpose, mostly to achieve long-term goals, for larger financial investments, financial security in the future and with the motive of self-reward. Savings and motives for saving were positively associated within couples in the same families, as were specific motives for saving. If parents saved, the probability that their “children” also saved was 2.88 times higher. Saving and motives for it among freshmen did not depend on the financial situation of the parents or changes in this situation in recent years, nor on the way the freshmen live (with parents, partly with parents). Compared to boys, girls saved 1.67 times more often, more often for the future in general (financial security, unforeseen expenses) and with the aim of achieving financial independence, and less often for large investments/purchases, long-term goals and short-term goals/ luxury shopping. More often than boys, women also stated that they save based on their financial knowledge, experience and positive financial beliefs. Parents did not differ from each other in terms of saving and motives for saving, in terms of education, employment status (full-time, part-time, unemployed) and the way their “children” lived, but those who lived with “children” saved more often for large investments and less often for short-term goals/luxury purchases or the post-retirement period. Fathers, parents in a marriage/partnership and those who assessed the family’s financial situation as better compared to Slovenian families and those who assessed that their situation had improved in recent years saved slightly more often than mothers, single parents and those who rated the financial situation worse. The important role of parents as mediators of financial socialization in the saving of their “children” was supported by the predictive relationships between parental direct teaching of “children” (in their adolescence) about financial matters and parental monitoring of the “child’s” spending of money. Taking into account prior parental financial socialization significantly improved the prediction of freshmen’s savings over their gender and parents’ savings.

Literature:

Lep, Ž., Zupančič, M. in Poredoš, M. (2021). Saving of freshmen and their parents in Slovenia: Saving motives and links to parental financial socialization. Journal of Family and Economic Issues. [Spletna izd.]. 2021. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10834-021-09789-x, DOI: 10.1007/s10834-021-09789-x.

We designed and supported an intergenerational model of the path from parents’ financial functioning (financial understanding, control over financial behavior) to the quality of the financial relationship between parents and students. The hypothesized paths lead to this outcome simultaneously in two directions: through (a) characteristics of financial parenting (financial behavior and teaching) and financial satisfaction of parents (satisfaction with managing finances) and (b) outcomes of financial parenting (financial understanding, adoption of the parents’ model, control over financial behavior and financial behavior) and financial satisfaction in students (satisfaction with financial management).

We obtained data from an extensive and previously validated inventory of 482 pairs of students and their parents. (1) We recognized the (in)direct contribution of parents’ financial activity to their financial relationship with more or less economically dependent children; (2) explained some mechanisms of intergenerational transfer in financial operations (model learning, teaching); (3) supported the validity of predictive relationships between two generations financially socialized in different social economic contexts, which supports the robustness of the identified paths and (4) successfully predicted financial satisfaction and relationships between couples of two generations within the family.

Zupančič, M., Poredoš, M. in Lep, Ž. (2023). Intergenerational model of financial satisfaction and parent-child financial relationship. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 40(8), 2568–2591. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075231153352 [COBISS.SI-ID 139627523]

In the secondary research that we carried out as part of the CRP 2018 – 2020 project on the data of two cycles of international knowledge studies (TIMSS, PISA, PIRLS) in Slovenia and selected five European countries, we investigated what kind of learning environment and teaching guides different students to form a positive attitude to the knowledge or internal learning motivation, which also ensures the achievement of quality knowledge. For this purpose, we created a model of “motivation and knowledge factors”, based on a synthesis of empirically supported psychological theories of learning motivation. The model assumes a positive connection between the learning environment, motivation and knowledge, whereby the learning environment directly affects both motivation and knowledge, and indirectly affects knowledge through motivation. Using multilevel modeling (HLM), we studied the connection between the indicators of the learning context and teaching (teacher support or teacher commitment to teaching and belonging to the school) with learning motivation (self-efficacy, interest or internal motivation, useful value of the subject or external motivation) and student achievements with different socio-economic status (learning support at home or SES) and cultural background (language spoken at home, or immigrant status) and gender, in different subject areas (mathematics, natural sciences – physics, chemistry, biology, Slovenian). The modeling results were compared between students of different grade levels (4th and 8th grade of elementary school and 1st year of upper secondary school) and generations (TIMSS 2011 – 2015 and PISA 2012 and 2015) and different European countries. For each set of data, we performed three two-level hierarchical regression analyzes (HLM): the model of motivation on achievement, the model of the learning environment on achievement, and the model of the learning environment on motivation, controlling for the effect of individual student characteristics. In general, the modeling results show that individual factors have a greater effect on achievement (especially the compatibility of the language spoken by students at home with the language of instruction and learning support at home) and on the motivation of the child. Motivation has a medium impact on achievement (especially self-efficacy, less interest). The learning environment has almost no direct effects on achievement, but it has large effects on learning motivation (especially teacher support, less school affiliation). Therefore, the learning environment has an indirect effect on achievements, through the strengthening of learning motivation. The results show some variation between subject areas, grade level and individual countries.

Literature:

Gril, A., Bijuklič, I., Autor, S., Šterman Ivančič, K., Japelj Pavešić, B. (2020). Spodbudno učno okolje za motivirano učenje in kakovostno znanje: zaključno vsebinsko poročilo – elaborat projekta. Ljubljana: Pedagoški inštitut. [COBISS.SI-ID 19479811].